Introduction to Negligence, Tort Law

Introduction to Negligence, Tort Law Discuss what is meant by a ‘duty of care’ in the tort of negligence. Explain the test which is applied in the tort of negligence to determine whether the defendant breached the legal duty of care owed to the claimant. What factors would a court take into account when determining how a reasonable person would act? Duty of care Test applied for determining Factors court would take into account to determine how a reasonable person would act Tort law Tort in general are a set of rights, obligation that are provided to the citizen by a civil court in order to maintain safety of people and provide remedies for persons who have been inflicted suffering/losses by the wrongdoings of other citizens. (http://legal dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/Tort+Law) A tort is a wrongdoing by a citizen towards another for which he/she is tried in the court of law. The plaintiff is the person against whom the wrong has been committed and who has suffered losses. Whereas, the person because of whom the damages/losses have occurred to the plaintiff is known as the defendant. The law of tort is obtained from common law principles that have come from case laws and legislative enactment. Torts are not dependent on any sort of agreement between the two parties involved and this is how tort law is distinguishable from breach of contract or any other type of law. Moreover, it is the citizen who brings the tort case even though criminal prosecutions are applied by the state. Defendants, in case of tort law, do not receive fines and neither do civil courts incarcerate them. (http://www.findlaw.co.uk/law/government/constitutional_law/500400.html) The word tort is derived from a latin word ‘torquere’, meaning incorrect or twisted. There was no separate legal action under the English common law. In place of tort the English law system provided plaintiffs with two options of reparation: trespass for direct injuries and for indirect injury, action on the case. In time, other civil wrongdoings were also recognized by the English common law, for ex Defamation, libel, slander. English common law became popular in America and they started adopting it. The first U.S. treatises that were published had a portion of common law which was created under the tort law. Every tort action requires some criteria to be fulfilled. First, the plaintiff must prove that the defendant had a legal obligation to act in a particular manner. Second, the plaintiff must prove that the defendant breached this duty by acting in a wrong way. Third, the plaintiff must be able to prove that he suffered losses, damage and injury because of the defendant not being able to follow his legal duty. (http://legal dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/Tort+Law) The law of tort aims to serve the following objectives. First, tort law aims at providing compensation to the plaintiff for injury/losses suffered due to the misdoings of the defendant. Second, it tries to punish the defendant by making them pay for the cost of such losses/injury. Third, it seeks to make sure that such an irresponsible, careless behavior is discouraged in the future. Lastly, tort law seeks to claim the legal rights that are compromised or diminished. The above mentioned objectives me into play when the tort liability is imposed on defendants for negligence, intentional misdoings. Types of tort Intentional Torts Intentional tort is when a citizen or a group of people purposely indulge in an activity that harms or causes damage to another. For example, one person attacking another in a fight will be considered as an intentional act that would come under this tort. Seeing the above example it may look like an intentional tort may be categorized as a criminal case, but there are some differences between them. A crime can be thought of as when an individual’s actions damages or injures the interest of the society. Whereas, an intentional tort is when the actions of an individual affects/injures the property/well-being of one individual. While in a criminal case the charges are brought on by the government and can lead to jail sentence, in a tort the victim presses the charges against the defendant and is usually seeking for monetary compensation for the injury/damages caused by the defendant. Negligence Every individual/citizen is anticipated to behave in a particular manner and conduct themselves responsibly. This is also considered as a legal duty of the citizens as this would reduce the risk of damage/injury/harm to the others. If a citizen fails to abide by these requirements he/she is said to be negligent and the act comes under negligence. Tort of negligence has been the most prevalent tort. A lot different than the tort of intention, negligence tort doesn’t consider intentional actions by a person, whereas it takes into account the cases where an individual acts carelessly and fails to obey the above mentioned legal duties towards fellow citizen causing them harm/injury/damage. The most common case is of slip and fall wherein a property owner fails to behave as a rational person would, hence causing harm to the visitor. Strict Liability This type of tort (strict/absolute) involves imposing responsibility, for a damage/injury/harm, on the person who has done wrong without the requirement of proof of negligence or intention. What only count is that an action transpired which eventually led to injury/damage/harm of another person. The most major example is of defective products, where the liability is imposed irrespective of intent. In such cases the only requirement the injured person has to fulfill is to prove that the injury was directly caused by the malfunction of the product in order to have the law on their side. The company’s intention is this case is not taken into consideration. Business tort (http://www.inc.com/articles/1999/11/15387.html) In business tort the damage is not done to an individual but to imperceptible assets such as economic interest or business relations or contracts. Fraudulent Misrepresentation Fraudulent misrepresentation aims at protecting an individual’s economic interests and also their right to reasonable and true treatment. If a plaintiff wishes to file a fraud claim he/she must prove that the defendant purposely misrepresented a fact which the plaintiff relied on and was eventually harmed/suffered losses due to the misrepresentation. For example, if a company presents factually wrong/misleading financial statements to a bank in order to procure a loan and the bank relying on those statements provides the loan then the bank is eligible to file a case for fraud against the company if they aren’t able to pay the loan back. Fraud claim can be filed if the defendant had the duty to disclose a fact but he/she failed to do so. Like for instance a financial advisor on behalf of both buyer and seller may be held for fraud if he has knowledge about the toxic content of the property and fails to tell this to the buyer. TORT OF NEGLIGENCE The most common kind of tort that one comes across is the tort of negligence and is generally used to represent behavior that causes the unreasonable risk of harm to other individuals. There are a few elements that are required to be established for the negligence tort. They are as follows: A duty of care should exist between the plaintiff and the defendant. The defendant breaching that duty of care. Defendants breach causes direct harm/ injury/damage to the plaintiff. DUTY OF CARE A duty of care is when a person is required to behave carefully, with responsibility and attention towards other individuals in a way a reasonable person would. If the individual fails to meet the expected standard of care then they behavior is considered negligent and any damage/harm resulting from it may be filed for negligence it the court of law. (http://legal-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/duty+of+care) Judges making decisions in various cases involving tort of negligence has led to the gradual development of duty of care. This first came to light in a case of negligence of donoghuev v Stevenson (1932) in which the plaintiff (mrs. Donoghuev) went to a cafà © with a friend of hers. Her friend brought her a drink of ginger beer and ice cream. The contents of the beer couldn’t be seen as it was in a dark bottle. Mrs. Donoghuev drank some of the beer and then poured the rest out and to her shock saw a dead, decomposing snail in the drink. This horrified mrs. Donoghuev and led to her becoming ill. The main reason of her falling ill was the sight and the ginger beer she had already drunk. In spite of clear negligence on the part of the manufacturer mrs. Donoghuev couldn’t claim against the manufacturer or the shopkeeper based on contract since she wasn’t the one who bought the drink. Mrs. Donoghuev’s friend bought the drink hence she could claim against the cafà © based on contract, but again since her friend didn’t suffer any kind of illness/losses apart from the fact that she had bought the defective good. In this case the only remedy that could be provided was money back to the friend and no remedy for mrs. Donoghuev’s health. Hence, mrs. Donoghuev decided to file a claim against the drink’s manufacturer (Stevenson). Her claims were based on the stomach illness and resulting shock from the consumption of the beer and the sight respectively. Whether her claim against the drink’s manufacturer would succeed or no was now dependent on the court’s decision. This situation led to lord Atkin’s famous statement. â€Å"The rule that you are to love your neighbour becomes in law, you must not injure your neighbour; and the lawyer’s question, ‘Who is my neighbour?’ receives a restricted reply.You must take reasonable care to avoid acts or omissions which you can reasonably foresee would be likely to injure your neighbour.Who, then, in law is my neighbour? The answer seems to be: persons who are so closely and directly affected by my act that I ought reasonably to have them in contemplation as being so affected when I am directing my mind to the acts or omissions which are called in question.† Donoghuev v stevenson (1932) was the first attempt that succeeded to set out a general principle with respect to the concept of the duty of care. As the lawyers began to realize that the above mentioned principle could be changed to be used with various types of cases, the test was restructured to create the three part test in the case of caparo v dickman (1990) The general parameters set in the test for caparo v dickman were as follows It should be reasonably foreseeable that an individual in the plaintiff’s position was at risk of injury/harm/damage. There should be satisfactory proximity between the two parties. Proximity here means that two parties involved should be close enough such that it is ‘reasonably foreseeable’ that negligence by one party leads to damage/injury to the other party. It should be just, rational and realistic to enforce liability on the defendant. All the above mentioned parameters should be met if a duty of care is to be payable by the defendant to the plaintiff. Also there is a necessity for each part to be proved and explained separately and unambiguously. Caparo Test The First Part – Foreseeablility This test is objective. Would it be foreseeable that someone in the claimants place might be injured by a reasonable individual? In Donoghue v Stevenson (1932) it can be seen that the consumer’s health will be affected if the snail gets into the bottle. This particular situation is of supplying consumable products with foreign bodies in it and a reasonable individual would be able to foresee that the consumer (plaintiff) may very likely be injured. In the case of Kent v Griffiths (2000) a patient was suffering from a serious asthma attack and therefore a doctor ordered an ambulance to take the patient to the hospital immediately. The ambulance control centre received the messaged and they acknowledged it. Without any acceptable reason the ambulance arrived very late, the result of which was that the patient suffered a heart attack. The heart attack could have been avoided if she had been attended to earlier. A reasonable individual would find it foreseeable that that the ambulance’s failure to arrive in time would cause the patient to suffer from serious harm. There have also been various cases where the courts have decided that it isn’t reasonably foreseeable that the plaintiff would suffer harm. For instance, in Bournhill v Young (1943) a motorcyclist crashed into a car and was killed due to driving too fast. Mrs. Bournhill, who was very close to the scene, was eight months pregnant. Mrs. Bournhill only heard the incident but didn’t actually see it. As she witnessed the blood on the road and body it led to her experiencing a severe shock which further led to her baby being born still. She filed a case against the motorcyclist blaming him for her plight. But the court denied her claims as they decided that the motorcyclist couldn’t have reasonably foreseen that his accident would affect mrs. Bournhill, hence he didn’t owe any duty of care to her. The Second Part – Proximity A duty of care exists only when the harm caused is reasonably foreseeable and also if the relation between the plaintiff and the defendant is sufficiently close. The same can also be seen in the case of Osman v Ferguson (1993) in which the police officers were aware of the risk the victim was at. The victim was hence murdered by the attacker. During the proceedings the courts established that the plaintiff and defendant had a sufficiently close relationship. However, the case failed because it was decided that it isn’t fair, just to impose a duty of care on the police. The Third Part – Fair, just and reasonable Generally, courts refrain from imposing a duty of care on the public authorities. However, is few situations the police do somehow owe a duty of care. In the case of MPC v Reeves (2001) a man with suicidal tendencies was taken into custody by the police. He hanged himself to death in the cell while he was in custody. In this particular case the police did owe the victim a duty of care. Breach of Duty Once a claimant has proved the duty of care is owed he must then show that the defendant breached that duty. This is merely when the defendant falls below the standard of care appropriate to the duty. Breach of duty is measured objectively by the ‘reasonable man test’. The reasonable man is the ordinary person performing the particular task: he is expected to perform it reasonably competently. Thus, when I am riding my bicycle, I am expected to be a reasonably competent cyclist who can ride a bicycle. Therefore, a number of factors that can be considered to raise or lower the standard. This is logical because a reasonable person will rightly take greater risks in an emergency, and take more care when the risk of harm is greater. For a breach of duty to occur, the court will take four factors into account: Now that the plaintiff has proved that duty of care exists the next step is to show that the defendant has breached that duty. -Thedegree of riskinvolved: the greater the risk, the more the defendant has to take care. (Bolton v Stone 1951). -Thecost of precautions: the courts will see how high the risk is involved, and then take into account the expense of taking precautions to prevent that risk (Bolton v Stone and Latimer v AEC). Potential seriousness of injures: so if there is a very high risk of serious injury, the more the defendant needs to be very careful (Paris v Stepney B.C. 1951). -Theimportance of the activity: in an emergency, sometimes it is not possible to reflect, think of a possible risk (Marshall v Osmand 1982). Standard for experts– where the defendant has some expertise, for example, he is a doctor carrying out medical treatment, then the standard of care is that which would normally be expected from a doctor. InBolam v Friern Hospital Management (1957)the judge said: A man need not possess the highest expert skill; it is †¦ sufficient if he exercises the ordinary skill of an ordinary competent man exercising that particular art. In some situations, it is difficult to know exactly what happened, although it is found obvious that the defendant was negligent. In these situations a rule calledres ipsa loquitur, which means (things speak for themselves) was developed by judges. It has to be shown that: à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ·The defendant was in control of the situation (causing injury). à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ·The injury was more likely than not to be caused by negligence. If the claimant proves these two things then the defendant has to prove that he was not negligent. This rule was shown in the case ofScott v London and St. Katherine Docks (1865)where the claimant was hit by six bags of sugar which fell from the defendant’s warehouse. The claimant could not say why the bags had fallen but the court ruled that the facts spoke for themselves and it was up to the defendant to prove that he was not negligent.

Colonial history of the United States Essay

Test Review Chapters 1-3 Day 1 Review (Monday) * Website review: themes and learning objectives from Chapter 1 * http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/0072424362/student_view0/chapter1/ * includes review Multiple choice and essay questions Topics to review: * Summarize the changes in European society that led to the era of exploration between 1400 and 1700. (pg. 9-12, 23-28) * Describe the Spanish Empire in the New World during the 1500s. Include political, military, economic, social, and cultural considerations. (pg. 11-20) * Discuss the economic and religious motivations that led to the establishment of English colonies in North America. (pg. 23-27) * Explain the French process of colonization and interaction with the natives. (pg. 27) Day 2 Review (Tuesday) * Website review: major themes and learning objectives from Chapter 2 * http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/0072424362/student_view0/chapter2/ * Includes review Multiple choice and essay questions Topics to Review: * Compare and contrast the development of Virginia with that of New England. Consider social, economic, political, and religious differences (Page: 34–49) * Explain the underlying causes and the unfortunate consequences of Bacon’s Rebellion. (pg. 39-40) * Contrast the early years of Pennsylvania with the early years of Georgia. (Page: 52–54, 58–59) * Compare and contrast the religious, economic, and social cultures of the Puritans and Quakers. (Page: 40–49, 52–54) Day 3 Review (Wednesday) * Website review: major themes and learning objectives from Chapter 3 * http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/0072424362/student_view0/chapter3/ * includes review multiple choice and essay questions Topics to Review: * Compare and contrast the institutions of white indentured servitude and African slavery in early colonial America. (Page: 66–67, 71–75) * Compare and contrast the lives of colonial women in the Chesapeake with those in New England. (Page: 69–71) * Compare and contrast the economies of the southern colonies with those of the northern colonies in the 1600s and 1700s. (Page: 77–89) * Compare and contrast the society found on a southern plantation of the late 1600s with that of a Puritan community of the same period. (Page: 83–87) * Explain how religion developed in the New England colonies during the 1600s and early 1700s. (Page: 89–91) * Compare the growth of education and organized religious thought in eighteenth-century colonial America. (Page: 89–94) Test Review Chapters 1-3 Day 1 Review (Monday) * Website review: themes and learning objectives from Chapter 1 * http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/0072424362/student_view0/chapter1/ * includes review Multiple choice and essay questions Topics to review: * Summarize the changes in European society that led to the era of exploration between 1400 and 1700. (pg. 9-12, 23-28) * Describe the Spanish Empire in the New World during the 1500s. Include political, military, economic, social, and cultural considerations. (pg. 11-20) * Discuss the economic and religious motivations that led to the establishment of English colonies in North America. (pg. 23-27) * Explain the French process of colonization and interaction with the natives. (pg. 27) Day 2 Review (Tuesday) * Website review: major themes and learning objectives from Chapter 2 * http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/0072424362/student_view0/chapter2/ * Includes review Multiple choice and essay questions Topics to Review: * Compare and contrast the development of Virginia with that of New England. Consider social, economic, political, and religious differences (Page: 34–49) * Explain the underlying causes and the unfortunate consequences of Bacon’s Rebellion. (pg. 39-40) * Contrast the early years of Pennsylvania with the early years of Georgia. (Page: 52–54, 58–59) * Compare and contrast the religious, economic, and social cultures of the Puritans and Quakers. (Page: 40–49, 52–54) Day 3 Review (Wednesday) * Website review: major themes and learning objectives from Chapter 3 * http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/0072424362/student_view0/chapter3/ * includes review multiple choice and essay questions Topics to Review: * Compare and contrast the institutions of white indentured servitude and African slavery in early colonial America. (Page: 66–67, 71–75) * Compare and contrast the lives of colonial women in the Chesapeake with those in New England. (Page: 69–71) * Compare and contrast the economies of the southern colonies with those of the northern colonies in the 1600s and 1700s. (Page: 77–89) * Compare and contrast the society found on a southern plantation of the late 1600s with that of a Puritan community of the same period. (Page: 83–87) * Explain how religion developed in the New England colonies during the 1600s and early 1700s. (Page: 89–91) * Compare the growth of education and organized religious thought in eighteenth-century colonial America. (Page: 89–94)

Funnel Beaker Culture First Farmers of Scandinavia

The Funnel Beaker Culture is the name of the first farming society in northern Europe and Scandinavia. There are several names for this culture and related cultures: Funnel Beaker Culture is abbreviated FBC, but it is also known by its German name Tricherrandbecher or Trichterbecher (abbreviated TRB) and in some academic texts it is simply recorded as Early Neolithic 1. Dates for the TRB/FBC vary depending on the exact region, but the period generally lasted between 4100-2800 calendar years BC (cal BC), and the culture was based in western, central and northern Germany, the eastern Netherlands, southern Scandinavia, and most parts of Poland. The FBC history is one of a slow transition from a Mesolithic subsistence system based strictly on hunting and gathering to one of full-fledged farming of domesticated wheat, barley, legumes, and herding of domesticated cattle, sheep, and goats. Distinguishing Traits The main distinguishing trait for FBC is a pottery form called funnel beaker, a handle-less drinking vessel shaped like a funnel. These were hand-built from local clay and decorated with modeling, stamping, incising, and impressing. Elaborate flint and ground stone axes and jewelry made of amber are also in Funnel Beaker assemblages. TRB/FBC also brought the first use of the wheel and plow in the region, the production of wool from sheep and goats, and the increased use of animals for specialized tasks. The FBC was also involved in extensive trade outside of the region, for large flint tools from flint mines, and for the latter adoption of other domestic plants (such as poppy) and animals (cattle). Gradual Adoption The exact date of the entry of domesticated plants and animals from the near east (via the Balkans) into northern Europe and Scandinavia varies with the region. The first sheep and goats were introduced into northwestern Germany 4,100-4200 cal BC, along with TRB pottery. By 3950 cal BC those traits were introduced into Zealand. Before the advent of the TRB, the region was occupied by Mesolithic hunter-gatherers, and, by all appearances, the change from Mesolithic lifeways to Neolithic farming practices was a slow one, with full-time agriculture taking between several decades to nearly 1,000 years to be fully adopted. The Funnel Beaker culture represents a massive economic shift from almost total dependence on wild resources to a diet based on tended cereals and domestic animals, and it was accompanied by a newly sedentary mode of life in complex settlements, the erection of elaborate monuments, and the use of pottery and polished stone tools. As with the Linearbandkeramic in central Europe, there is some  debate about whether the change was caused by migrants into the region or adoption of new techniques by the local Mesolithic people: it was likely a little of both. Farming and sedentism led to population increases and as the FBC societies became more complex they also became socially stratified. Changing Landuse Practices One important piece of the TRB/FBC in northern Europe involved a drastic change in land use. The darkly forested woodlands of the region were environmentally impacted by the new farmers expanding their cereal fields and pastured areas and by timber exploitation for building construction. The most important impact of these was the construction of pasturages. The use of the deep forest for cattle foraging is not unknown  and is practiced even today in some places in Britain, but the TRB people in northern Europe and Scandinavia deforested some areas for this purpose. Cattle came to play a prominent role in the switch to permanent farming in the temperate zones: they served as a food storage mechanism, surviving on fodder to produce milk and meat for their humans over the winter. Plant Use Cereals used by TRB/FBC were mostly emmer wheat (Triticum dicoccum) and naked barley (Hordeum vulgare) and lesser amounts of free-threshing wheat (T. aestivum/durum/turgidum), einkorn wheat (T. monococcum), and spelt (Triticum spelta). Flax (Linum usitatissimum), peas (Pisum sativum) and other pulses, and poppy (Papaver somniferum) as an oil plant. Their diets continued to include gathered foods such as hazelnut (Corylus), crab apple (Malus, sloe plums (Prunus spinosa), raspberry (Rubus idaeus), and blackberry (R. frruticosus). Depending on the region, some FBC harvested fat hen (Chenopodium album), acorn (Quercus), water chestnut (Trapa natans), and hawthorn (Crataegus). Funnel Beaker Life   The new northern farmers lived in villages made up of small short-term houses made of poles. But there were public structures in the villages, in the form of ditched enclosures. These enclosures were circular to oval systems made up of ditches and banks, and they varied in size and shape  but included few buildings within the ditches. A gradual change in burial customs is in evidence at TRB sites. The earliest forms associated with TRB are substantial burial monuments which were communal burials: they began as individual graves but were reopened again and again for later burials. Eventually, the wooden supports of the original chambers were replaced with stone, creating impressive passage graves with central chambers and roofs made of glacial boulders, some covered with earth or small stones. Thousands of megalithic tombs were created in this fashion. Flintbek The introduction of the wheel into northern Europe and Scandinavia occurred during the FBC. That evidence was found at the archaeological site of Flintbek, located in the Schleswig-Holstein region of northern Germany, about 8 kilometers (5 miles) from the Baltic coast near the town of Kiel. The site is a cemetery containing at least 88 Neolithic and Bronze Age burials. The overall Flintbek site is that of a long, loosely connected chain of grave mounds, or barrows, approximately 4 km (3 mi) long and .5 km (.3 mi) wide, roughly following a narrow ridge formed by a glacial ground moraine. The most prominent feature of the site is Flintbek LA 3, a 53x19 m (174-62 ft) mound, surrounded by a curb of boulders. A set of cart tracks were found beneath the most-recent half of the barrow, consisting of a pair of ruts from a wagon fitted with wheels. The tracks (direct-dated to 3650-3335 cal BC) lead from the edge to the center of the mound, ending at the central location of Dolmen IV, the last burial construction at the site. Scholars believe these were laid down by wheels rather than tracks from a drag cart, due to the wavy impressions in the longitudinal sections. A Few Funnel Beaker Sites Poland: Dabki 9Sweden: AlmhovDenmark: Havnelev, Lisbjerg-Skole, SarupGermany: Flintbek, Oldenburg-Danau, Rastorf, Wangels, Wolkenwehe, Triwalk, Albersdorf-Dieksknà ¶ll, Huntedorf, Hude, Flà ¶geln-Eekhà ¶ltjenSwitzerland: Niederwil Sources Bakker JA, Kruk J, Lanting AE, and Milisauskas S. 1999. The earliest evidence of wheeled vehicles in Europe and the Near East. Antiquity 73(282):778-790.Gron KJ, Montgomery J, Nielsen PO, Nowell GM, Peterkin JL, Sà ¸rensen L, and Rowley-Conwy P. 2016. Strontium isotope evidence of early Funnel Beaker Culture movement of cattle. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 6:248-251.Gron KJ, and Rowley-Conwy P. 2017. Herbivore diets and the anthropogenic environment of early farming in southern Scandinavia. The Holocene 27(1):98-109.Hinz M, Feeser I, Sjà ¶gren K-G, and Mà ¼ller J. 2012. Demography and the intensity of cultural activities: an evaluation of Funnel Beaker Societies (4200–2800  cal BC). Journal of Archaeological Science 39(10):3331-3340.Jansen D, and Nelle O. 2014. The Neolithic woodland – archaeoanthracology of six Funnel Beaker sites in the lowlands of Germany. Journal of Archaeological Science 51:154-163.Kirleis W, and Fischer E. 2014. Neolithic cultiv ation of tetraploid free threshing wheat in Denmark and Northern Germany: implications for crop diversity and societal dynamics of the Funnel Beaker Culture. Vegetation History and Archaeobotany 23(1):81-96.Kirleis W, Klooß S, Kroll H, and Mà ¼ller J. 2012. Crop growing and gathering in the northern German Neolithic: a review supplemented by new results. Vegetation History and Archaeobotany 21(3):221-242.Mischka D. 2011. The Neolithic burial sequence at Flintbek LA 3, north Germany, and its cart tracks: a precise chronology. Antiquity 85(329):742-758.Skoglund P, Malmstrà ¶m H, Raghavan M, Storà ¥ J, Hall P, Willerslev E, Gilbert MTP, Gà ¶therstrà ¶m A, and Jakobsson M. 2012. Origins and genetic legacy of Neolithic farmers and hunter-gatherers in Europe. Science 336:466-469.

Corporate Social Responsibility - 2536 Words

Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) is a very controversial topic. A question that has been debated for the past few decades is; is it corporately viable to introduce social responsibility as a proposed addition to the work ethic of business organisations. As well as, if adopting the framework of corporate social responsibility would yield positive improvements for those organisations. The purpose of this essay is to research the notion of CSR and uncover its true framework and outline what social responsibility truly means to corporate organisations, and whether it should be seriously considered to be a legitimate addition to the corporate framework of an organisation. This will be done by outlining some of the basics through the†¦show more content†¦ Gray, E. (1974), which are: 1. Economic/market values as opposed to non-economic/human values. 2. The ethics of non-maleficence contrasted with the ethics of beneficence, and 3. A stakeholder interest dimension. According to Boal, K. Peery, K. (1985: 71-82) in terms of explained variance, their analysis suggests that the dimension of economic/market values Ââ€" non-economic/human values is the most important dimension. The second most important dimension was ethics (non-maleficence Vs Beneficence), which corresponds to ‘quality-of-life issues such as cultural values, social justice, and employee rights. This is an ethical dimension, which, according to Boal, K. Peery, K. (1985: 71-82) is independent of the economic dimension and is of crucial importance to an understanding of social responsibility. The third dimension of social responsibility considers the outcomes of decisions in terms of who benefits from them. An acceptable decision outcome should either protect or promote the rights of those affected. There could be exceptional circumstances, which would justify minimising one of these dimensions. However, indiscriminate ignoring of these dimensions could undermine the legitimacy or, in turn, the long-term social support of an organisation. Society has many expectations of business, and business in order to be successful must meet these expectations. The social responsibility of business encompasses the economic, legal, ethical, and discretionaryShow MoreRelatedCorporate Social Responsibility : Corporate Responsibility773 Words   |  4 PagesCorporate social responsibility may also be referred to as corporate citizenship and can involve spending finances that do not directly benefit the company but rather advocate positive social and environmental change. The soul in the next economy forum presentation made it evident that achieving corporate social responsibly in a company can reap major benefits in terms of finances, more inspiring workplace and customer satisfaction. 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This obligationRead MoreCorporate Social Responsibility : Corporate Responsibility2819 Words   |  12 PagesIntroduction For the past years, corporate social responsibility also referred, as corporate conscience has been a respected subject for discussion. Corporate social responsibility, unquestionably, contains more viewpoint than simply worried about the ecological impacts of associations. It came in people groups mind at the later 1880, time of essential modern advancement that associations ought to think about the thought of social obligation. Associations that are near to social obligation issues got toRead MoreCorporate Social Responsibility : Corporate Responsibility2818 Words   |  12 PagesFor the past years, corporate social responsibility also referred, as corporate conscience has been a respected subject for discussion. Corporate social responsibility, unquestionably, contains more viewpoint than simply worried about the ecological impacts of associations. It came in people groups mind at the later 1880, time of essential modern advancement that associations ought to think about the thou ght of social obligation. Associations that are near to social obligation issues got to be worryRead MoreCorporate Responsibility And Corporate Social Responsibility Essay1867 Words   |  8 PagesStevan Jakovljevic Professor Laud MGT 3550 Values, Ethics and Sustainability 10/18/16 Chapter 3: Define corporate responsibility (CSR). Describe the benefits. Why do some executives support CSR while others find it troublesome and argue against it? Corporate social responsibility is what a company uses to self-regulate itself and refers to business practices involving initiatives that benefit society. A business’s CSR can encompass a wide variety of tactics, from giving away a portion of a company’s